The Civil war transformed the United States. The four-year struggle preserved the nation, but not without devastating costs, including human and economic. It made heroes of ordinary men and women, ended slavery and ushered in the age of industrialization. It changed the role of women, and it freed more than 3 million slaves. The battles fought—from the small engagements at Shiloh and Gaines’ Mill to the massive campaigns at Antietam, Perryville, Gettysburg, Vicksburg, and elsewhere—represent some of the most significant events in American history.
The Civil War grew out of decades of sectional friction over the institution of slavery. The framers of the Constitution had compromised with respect to the issue, but as the nation expanded and industrialization took hold in the North, that compromise began to fray. By 1860, the political climate was such that secession seemed inevitable.
On April 12, 1861, Confederate troops seized the federal fort at Charleston Harbor, then opened fire on Union soldiers guarding it. The resulting siege lasted 34 hours, and by the end of the day the Union garrison had surrendered. Four more Southern states quickly seceded, and Jefferson Davis became provisional president of the new Confederacy.
In the months that followed, the Senate performed its constitutional duties. It confirmed five cabinet secretaries and a Supreme Court justice and passed important legislation. It also sought to revive peace talks, but Radical Republicans like Charles Sumner dismissed any hope of a peaceful solution.